The placebo effect is generally known as a beneficial effect usually from a drug or treatment which cannot be attributed to that treatment but rather the person’s belief in that treatment.

So if someone was given an inert tablet (like a sugar pill) to treat and ailment, believing it would work, and they actually had some benefit to that ailment following this perceived treatment, it would be known as the placebo effect.

The placebo effect can be astoundingly powerful and although it is a deception, there have been many peer reviewed cases of improvement of certain conditions.

It is often deliberately used in clinical trials as it is compared with a new drug or treatment  to access whether a new drug or treatment has any clinical benefit

Science

What is the placebo effect ?

A eukaryote is a cell (can also be a single cell organism) that has a membrane bound nucleus, organelles (little organs) and linear chromosomes (compared to single circular chromosome).

These organelles May include mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and ribosomes, meaning that eukaryotes are capable of much more complex cellular progresses.

A good analogy is to compare a prokaryotic cell as a one room house, whereas an eukaryotic cell is a multi room house where each room or organelle has specific purpose or function.

Biology

What is a eukaryote ?

Kristallnacht was the ‘Night of Broken Glass’ as Nazi party paramilitary forces and civilians destroyed Jewish businesses and synagogues in November 1938. It was a deliberate attack and persecution of Jewish people before the start of World War II. Prior to this, although Jewish people were being persecuted, it was not to the severity and brutality as this night.

It was a widespread attack with fatalities, unwarranted arrests of Jewish people and destruction of their homes and livelihoods. Many believe that Kristallnacht was the real start of the holocaust.

It was also the point where the world’s news and governments became highly aware of what was happening across Nazi Germany and could no longer turn a blind eye to these events and this is where political relations between Nazi Germany and the world fractured. 

So really Kristallnacht was the start of the Holocaust and the event that sparked the catalyst that would lead to World War II amount world governments

History

Why was Kristalnacht so significant?

The human brain is divided into three parts: the brainstem, the cerebellum, and the cerebrum. 

The brainstem is the posterior part of the brain which has the pons, the midbrain, and the medulla oblongata. The brainstem is mainly responsible for motor and sensory nerves to the face and neck (majority of the cranial nerves).

The cerebellum which forms the hindbrain along with the brainstem and is located below the cerebrum. The main confirmed function of the cerebellum is motor function regarding contributing to coordination and precision.

The cerebrum which is the largest section of the brain is made up of the cerebral cortex as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres (the left and the right) each of which has four lobes: the frontal, the temporal, the parietal, and the occipital.


How many parts is the human brain divided into? Is one of the parts the hind brain?

Cortical bone is the dense part of the bone structure that has tiny holes for osteocytes (bone cells) and accounts for 80% of our skeleton. 

The compact bone has a structure similar to tree trunks with their tightly rings of growth and as the name suggests the description of closely packed rings of cells called osteons. Forming concentric circles with small channels (called canaliculi) to allow for passageway through the tightly packed rings. 

The functions of compact bone apart from forming the protective shell around the spongy marrow insides (cancellous bone) and providing the rigidity and strength to long bones (arms and legs) is the movement and support of the skeleton. Without the compact bone we would all be very spongy! The compact bone in conjunction with the connective tissues of ligaments, tendons and muscles allows joints to be used as mechanical levers to gain momentum.

What is the structure and function of the compact bone?

Alveoli are tiny sacs found in the lungs of mammals to help with rapid gas exchange (breathing). Alveoli actually comes from the Latin for little cavity, and this is what they look like in the lungs, tiny holes that are vital to breathing (you can also find a different type of alveoli in teeth).
The membrane of the sac itself is a gas exchange surface through diffusion, where the carbon dioxide rich blood from the body is exhaled whilst oxygen is absorbed to be pumped around the body.
The average human has 700 million alveoli and (to me at least) they look a bit like broccoli, with the alveoli duct being the stem, and the floret being the alveoli sacs. There are many sacs on each duct, increasing the surface area for gas exchange. The surface area of alveoli actually makes up almost 70 square metres (1 quarter of a tennis court).
The alveoli are made from elastin and collagen fibres, to allow for expansion during inhalation. They have an extracellular matrix surrounded by a capillary network to promote diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen. 
Some medical conditions such as asthma are related to the amount of air that can be brought into the alveoli, where external pollutants (generally) restrict the inhalation causing respiratory distress.
If you have more questions or require more detail just let me know

What are structure and function of alveoli?

The meninges are three layers of protective tissue called the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

The dura mater is the most superior/outer of the meningeal layers. Its name literally translates to "hard mother" and it is tough and inflexible. This tissue forms several structures that separate the cranial cavity into compartments and protect the brain from displacement.

The arachnoid is the middle layer of the meninges. In some areas, it projects into the sinuses formed by the dura mater. The subarachanoid space lies between the arachnoid and pia mater. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. All blood vessels entering the brain, as well as cranial nerves pass through this space.

The pia mater is the innermost layer of the meninges. Unlike the other layers, this tissue adheres closely to the brain, running down into the sulci and fissures of the cortex. 

English

What are the three meninges of the brain?

The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin and underneath that sits the dermis.

The dermis is linked to the epidermis via the basement membrane which controls the traffic of cells and molecules between the dermis and epidermis.

The dermis provides tensile strength and elasticity to the skin through an extracellular matrix composed of collagen fibrils, microfibrils, and elastic fibres, embedded in hyaluronan and proteoglycans.

Collagen fibrils: Collagen is made up of amino acids wound together in triple-helices structures to form of elongated fibrils. I always think of ropes when I think of collagen fibrils as they have a similar appearance.

Microfibrils: as the name suggest is a very fine fibre like strand and is composed of glycoproteins and cellulose and it helps to increase the cell strength

Elastic fibres: are bundles of elastin produced by fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells in arteries. These can stretch to 1.5x times their length without snapping, so help to provide cushioning.

Which connective tissue composes the dermis of the skin?

Genes are physical structures related by physical distance and during meiosis development of the haploid cells, and the nearer two genes are on a chromosome, the lower the chance of recombination between them, and the more likely they are to be inherited together, making them linked genes.

Think of it as combining two books together into four different books, it is likely that you will get chapters and paragraphs mixed together but words and letters because they have a closer physical relationship are less likely to be mixed up. (I hope my analogy helps make more sense!)

Are linked genes the ones that are linked with genes on the same chromosome or with genes on the homologous chromosome?

Bone is densely packed with flexible collagen fibres, hardened by calcium and phosphorus. They are built to withstand great stress, but they don't always start off that way.

Bone is a replacement tissue; that is, it uses a model tissue on which to lay down its mineral matrix. For skeletal development, the most common template is cartilage. Osteogenesis and ossification are the terms used to indicate the process of bone formation. 

Parts of the skeleton form during the first few weeks after conception. By the end of the eighth week after conception, the skeletal pattern is formed in cartilage and connective tissue membranes and ossification begins.

Newborn babies have around 300 bones,  many of which fuse together as the body matures. Babies require a constant supply of calcium in order for the skeleton to develop properly. Namely, the skull is very soft to allow for passage through the birthing canal and takes 9-18 months to harden. (I’m sure an infants skull is where sci-fi writers got inspiration for what aliens would look like)

Puberty has a key role for bone development. Skeletal mass approximately doubles at the end of adolescence. The main determinants of pubertal gain of bone mass are the sex hormones as well as other growth hormones. As the cartilage growth significantly slows, the ossification rate overtakes and by this point the skeleton is laid out in bone instead of cartilage.

Although there is constant remodelling and repair or bones to stress and/or other external factors.

Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to increase in thickness or diameter throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle activity or to weight. So maybe you can be big boned!

From about age 30, the density of bones begins to diminish in men and women. This loss of bone density accelerates in women after menopause (due to changes in oestrogen levels). As a result, bones become more fragile and are more likely to break especially in old age.


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Claire Jeffrey